External Publications Using GUI Data

Using data from Ireland’s national longitudinal study of children, this paper employs a capabilities approach to disability to understand how individual characteristics as well as home and school environmental factors at age 9 relate to academic and socio-emotional outcomes of students with special educational needs (SEN) at age 17. Results suggest that young people with SEN register both lower average scores and make less academic progress between the age of 9 and their national lower secondary examination, with the exception of young people with a physical SEN. Both home and school environmental factors at 9 years have long-term associations with the academic outcomes of young people with SEN, after controlling for individual characteristics and prior academic achievement. Home and school environmental factors had less consistent associations with the socio-emotional outcomes of young people with SEN. By using rigorous nationally representative longitudinal data, this paper offers a more holistic understanding of the development of young people with SEN. The paper also provides important evidence that a more inclusive approach for supporting students with additional needs, their parents, and their schools is needed.

Keywords
Special educational needs, capabilities approach, academic achievement, socio-emotional outcomes, Growing Up in Ireland

The aim of this study was to identify, using cluster analysis, novel sleep phenotypes in a population based cohort of infants, and to explore the associations between infant sleep profiles and their mothers’ health and well-being. 11,134 mothers of 9-month old infants were interviewed as part of the Growing Up in Ireland National Longitudinal study and reported on their health and infant’s sleep patterns. 16 infant sleep variables were recorded together with measures of parental stress, depression, health and well-being. Multiple iterations of a two-step hierarchical cluster analysis were carried out to identify the optimum number of clusters and the subset of parental-reported sleep variables required to identify distinct sleep profiles. Four distinct sleep profiles were identified based on the following variables; (1) infant sleep duration at night, (2) parental sleep duration, (3) does baby wake during night (yes, no)? (4) Usual sleep location for most of the night and, (5) parental reporting of problem infant sleep patterns. This identified two less favorable profiles with both infants and mothers sleeping less and where mothers are more likely to report their infants’ sleep patterns as problematic. Mothers of infants belonging to these sleep profiles were more likely to have higher levels of stress, depressive symptoms, and poorer self-reported health than other sleep profiles. Breastfeeding was associated with both groups and rates were highest in a group of infants that were more likely to co-sleep with their parents and have diverse ethnic backgrounds. This study demonstrates, for the first time, two infant sleep profiles with distinct phenotypical frameworks that are significantly associated with maternal stress, depression, and poorer self-report of health.

The present study investigated the home learning environment of three to five-year-old children (n = 429) living in an area designated as socio-economically disadvantaged, involved in the Area Based Childhood (ABC) programme, compared to a nationally representative sample of three-year-old children (n = 9793), from the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) Study. Statistical analysis of the frequency of engagement in home learning activities across both samples, revealed a significant difference in the environments to which children are exposed, with families from the GUI sample engaging more frequently in these activities than families from the ABC sample. Among the family demographic factors investigated, parent’s age and household type were significantly related to the frequency of engagement in home learning activities. Based on these findings, policy and practice implications are discussed.

Keywords
home learning environment, socio-economic disadvantage, family demographics, early childhood development

Although there is a wealth of research addressing the association between mental health and school absenteeism, there are calls for a better understanding of how mental health difficulties might predict SAPs (Egger et al., 2003; Finning et al., 2022; Ingul et al., 2019; Wood et al., 2012). The aim of this paper was to create a more nuanced understanding of SAPs by exploring how different constellations of mental health difficulties might be predictive of absenteeism in 9-year-olds. Using a sample of Irish 9-year-olds (N = 8570) from the Growing Up In Ireland Study (GUI’98), the research used latent class analysis (LCA) to identify combinations of mental health symptoms. Twenty items from the Strengths and Difficulty Questionnaire (SDQ) were used to measure a range of emotional and behavioural difficulties. The analysis yielded four mental health classes—High Risk of Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (EBD), High Risk of Emotional Difficulties (ED), High Risk of Behavioural Difficulties (BD) and Low Risk of Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties (EBD). The study assessed whether rates of student absenteeism varied across different classes of mental health as identified through LCA and explored risk factors associated with different classes. Children in the high-risk mental health symptomology groups had significantly higher odds of absenteeism compared to the low-risk class and significantly greater odds of experiencing multiple family, school and demographic risk factors. The distinct profiles of mental health symptoms observed within the classes and their patterns of associations with risk factors and days absent indicated classes were theoretically distinct. The results illustrate the importance of recognising the relationship between mental health and school absenteeism in primary school children when developing early intervention strategies for SAPs. As one of the few studies to focus on 9-year-olds, the current study contributes to current knowledge on the complexities of emerging SAPs in primary school children.

Keywords
Mental health, School attendance problems, School avoidance, Truancy, Risk factors

This chapter presents a socioeconomic profile of childhood disability in an Irish context. Using data from the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) survey, it considers a range of dimensions. These include an analysis of the associations between the childhood disability status of a household and a range of socioeconomic indicators relating to labour market outcomes, levels of parental education, social class, income and economic hardship. The chapter compares households with and without a child with a disability on the basis of these socioeconomic measures. The primary carer of a child with a disability is considerably less likely to participate in the labour market and considerably more likely to turn down work opportunities, when compared to a primary carer of a child without a disability. Parents of a child with a disability are less likely to be educated at third level and more likely to be in the lowest social class.

Objective
Early complementary feeding has been shown to increase the risk of overweight, obesity and chronic diseases later in life. Poor compliance with current guidelines on complementary feeding has been reported by Irish studies. The aim of the present paper is to identify predictors of early complementary feeding in order to help health professionals target population groups in greater need of dietary intervention as well as to provide effective advice.

Design
Cross-sectional analysis of the national, longitudinal Growing Up in Ireland study.

Setting
Data were derived from the first wave (2007–2008) of the Growing Up in Ireland infant cohort.

Subjects
A cohort of mothers (n 11 134) from the Republic of Ireland, interviewed when their infants were 9 months of age.

Results
Of the infants, 1469 (13·5 %) had been regularly taking solids in the period between 12 and 16 weeks; this percentage increased to 47·0 % of the sample in the period between 16 and 20 weeks. Timing of formula feeding commencement, high maternal BMI and choosing a relative as the infant’s minder were strongly associated with early introduction of solids both in bivariate and multivariate analysis. Those infants who started formula feeding at >4 months were 88·4% less likely to be introduced to solids early compared with those who started at <2 months (OR = 0·116; 95% CI 0·072, 0·186; P < 0·001).

Conclusions
The results demonstrate that biological, social and behavioural aspects exert an important role in infant feeding practices. These findings are relevant to the design of policies and intervention programmes aimed at educating parents.

Keywords
Complementary feeding, Infant’s diet, Early weaning

The increasing emphasis on inclusive education internationally has broadened the definition of special educational needs (SEN) and greatly affected national prevalence estimates. In line with these international trends, in Ireland the EPSEN Act (2004) defines SEN as any “restriction in the capacity of a person to participate in or benefit from education”. Taking this broad definition, this study draws on the first longitudinal study of children in Ireland, Growing Up in Ireland, to generate a new estimate of SEN prevalence among Irish nine-year-old children. The analysis combines detailed information, collected from parents and teachers, encompassing diverse types of SEN, including physical disabilities, speech impairments, learning disabilities and emotional/behavioural difficulties. In doing so, the study establishes a SEN prevalence rate of 25 per cent among children in the mid-primary years, a rate very much in line with recent research in other European contexts. Additionally, the study details the diversity of data collected on children and young people with SEN and disabilities across agencies and government departments, the potential value of this data and directions for improved learner databases.

Identifying the clustering and correlates of physical activity (PA) and sedentary behavior (SB) is very important for developing appropriate lifestyle interventions for children and adolescents. This systematic review (Prospero CRD42018094826) aimed to identify PA and SB cluster patterns and their correlates among boys and girls (0-19 years). The search was carried out in five electronic databases. Cluster characteristics were extracted in accordance with authors’ descriptions by two independent reviewers and a third resolved any disagreements. Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria and the population age ranged from six to 18 years old. Nine, twelve, and ten cluster types were identified for mixed-sex samples, boys, and girls, respectively. While girls were in clusters characterized by “Low PA Low SB” and “Low PA High SB”, the majority of boys were in clusters defined by “High PA High SB” and “High PA Low SB”. Few associations were found between sociodemographic variables and all cluster types. Boys and girls in “High PA High SB” clusters had higher BMI and obesity in most of the tested associations. In contrast, those in the “High PA Low SB” clusters presented lower BMI, waist circumference, and overweight and obesity. Different cluster patterns of PA and SB were observed in boys and girls. However, in both sexes, a better adiposity profile was found among children and adolescents in “High PA Low SB” clusters. Our results suggest that it is not enough to increase PA to manage the adiposity correlates, it is also necessary to reduce SB in this population.

A Tobacco-Free Future – An all-island report on tobacco, inequalities and childhood 2013 reveals declines in smoking rates among both children and pregnant women over the past decade, both North and South of the border. This report published by the Institute of Public Health in Ireland (IPH) and the TobaccoFree Research Institute Ireland (TFRI), shows that while tobacco control measures are being successful, disadvantaged children are at particular risk of tobacco-related harms.

Children growing up in disadvantaged circumstances face a number of threats to their health and development. Protecting children from the burden of tobacco related harm from both active and passive smoking is a priority action in enhancing population health and reducing health inequalities. Population health strategies on the island of Ireland are increasingly focussing on addressing the root causes of health inequality through social determinants of health approaches and through focussing on early childhood as a key period for intervention. At the same time, governments in both jurisdictions are working to enhance their approaches to effective tobacco control.

The World Health Organization considers that there are three key ‘windows of exposure’ in terms of tobacco-related harm in childhood – in the womb (associated with active or passive smoking by the mother), directly through children taking up smoking and through exposure to second hand smoke (SHS) in indoor and outdoor environments.

This report presents findings on these three windows of exposure based on a range of data sources in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. The central aim of the report is to contribute to knowledge on the exposure of children to the harmful effects of tobacco smoke at various stages of their development. The findings of the report can support policy makers and service providers in their efforts to make tobacco-free childhoods a reality on the island of Ireland.

The aim of this study was to examine the role of different types of home learning activities, such as reading, singing, painting, playing games, and letters and numbers (ABCs and 123 s), in the development of nonverbal reasoning skills in young children. Although much previous research has focused on the role of the home learning environment in the development of language and numeracy skills, few studies have explored other aspects of cognitive development such as nonverbal reasoning. The data were drawn from the Growing Up in Ireland study, a nationally representative longitudinal birth cohort study. We examined whether learning activities were associated with scores on standardized nonverbal reasoning and vocabulary tests of the British Ability Scales in a sample of 9793 3-year-old children. The regression models also controlled for other factors that potentially influence cognitive development such as the parent–child relationship and maternal education. The findings indicate that activities such as reading, games, and painting/drawing have a small but statistically significant association with nonverbal reasoning scores, as well as with vocabulary scores, even after controlling for other factors in the model. Teaching the alphabet or numbers did not make significant contributions to the model. The findings of the study highlight the importance of considering the role of different types of home learning activities, as well as other environmental factors, in different aspects of cognitive development. We consider the implications of the findings for theories of cognitive development and for supporting cognitive development in young children.

In today’s increasingly diverse societies, a key question is how to foster the structural integration of immigrants and their descendants. While research indicates that migrant educational underachievement is a serious issue, relatively little is known about achievement gaps at younger ages and in relatively new immigration countries. The current study sets out to estimate the size of disparities by migration background at age five (i.e. when they start school) and explores the causes of these gaps. It does so in a context that offers a compelling but under-researched case: the Republic of Ireland. It draws on the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) data, a national longitudinal study of children in Ireland. The results suggest that some disparities by migration background already existed at the start of primary school, but also that gaps were limited to verbal skills and differed widely across groups. Moreover, social background only played a relatively minor role in explaining the differences, whereas the child’s first language was a powerful predictor of disadvantages by migration background in verbal skills.

The purpose of the study was, 1) to identify risk and protective factors that predict academic achievement in low socioeconomic status (SES) pupils in Ireland; and 2) to establish if these predicting factors are unique and applicable only in low-SES pupils. Using two waves of the Irish nationally representative longitudinal data, a multi-informant design was applied to analyse data from over 7,000 children along with their caregivers and teachers. A series of multilevel regression analyses were performed to compare data from low-SES and high-SES pupils. After controlling for prior achievement, findings suggested that academic achievement in both low and high-SES pupils are promoted by educational aspirations, attentional skills and being in the rural area. The strength of the association between protective factors and academic achievement, however, varies between the two groups. Nonetheless, close parent-child relationship in low-SES female pupils appears to be a unique factor that promotes academic resilience that does not apply to the rest of the pupils. The study contributes credible evidence and fresh insights into protective factors that exclusively promote academic resilience in low-SES pupils. From the perspective of policy and intervention, the differentiated knowledge gained is useful to inform the provision of targeted efforts aimed at closing the gap in achievement between pupils from different socioeconomic backgrounds.

Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) is the national longitudinal study of children and young people in the Republic of Ireland and has followed two cohorts for over ten years to date: Cohort ’98 who were recruited into the study at age nine years and Cohort ’08, recruited at age nine months. The study aims to describe the lives of Irish children and young people in terms of their development, with a view to positively affecting policies and services available for them. Traditionally, data collection involved in-home visits from an interviewer who conducted face-to-face interviews, recorded physical measurements of study participants and administered cognitive assessments. However, with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated restrictions, significant adaptations were required to these methods to ensure data collection for the pilot and main fieldwork for Cohort ’08 at age 13 could continue to the expected timeline. Face-to-face interviews with participants were replaced with telephone and web-based modes, interviewer training was conducted online, online resources were made available for interviewers and participants and COVID-19 related items were added to questionnaires. In addition to the scheduled data collection, a special COVID-19 survey was also conducted on both GUI cohorts in December 2020 to explore the impact of the pandemic on participants’ lives. This paper outlines the adaptations made to traditional data collection methods in GUI, highlighting the challenges that were met, but also the benefits of some changes that may be worth incorporating into future waves of GUI.

Internationally and in Ireland, much of the research around gender and educational engagement has centred on the academic differences between boys and girls (Warrington and Younger 2000; Francis 2009; O’Connor 2007). Less is known however about the factors shaping affective school engagement and student self-concept and how this can affect participation in learning. Children and young people emphasise the affective or emotional as much as the learning aspects of school life (Alexander 2008). Drawing on data from the 9-year cohort of the Growing Up in Ireland study, this paper examines self-concept among boys and girls in Irish primary schools. The findings show important differences in terms of the affective elements of school engagement, with boys more likely than girls to score significantly lower levels on measures of ‘good’ behaviour and intellectual school status, while girls score significantly lower on freedom from anxiety than boys. The findings also illustrate that predictors of disengagement are about more than the child’s gender – in that working class children and students with special educational needs are faring less well in terms of affective engagement in school.

This paper explores the role of antenatal care in determining mode of birth in the Irish healthcare system using data from the Growing Up in Ireland study. Results indicate that midwifery-led antenatal care is independently associated with significantly higher rates of normal delivery and significantly lower rates of elective caesarean section relative to consultant-led care in both the public and private sectors. Given concerns over increasing rates of caesarean section, our results are consistent with calls nationally and internationally for further investment in midwifery-led antenatal care services, and for stricter regulation of the actors, both providers and patients, engaged in the private antenatal care pathway.

This nationally representative study of Irish infants explores whether the set of child and environmental factors established as predicting language outcomes aged 3 years would also predict language and communication development as early as age 9 months. Associations between infant and environmental characteristics and infant language outcomes at 9 months, as measured on the ASQ 10-month communication questionnaire, were explored in a series of bivariate logistic regression models and in a fully adjusted multivariable logistic regression model. Infant gender, health, birthweight and temperament were significantly associated with passing the ASQ communication measure at 9 months. Being an only child and having some experience of relative childcare predicted positive communication outcomes. Infants of older mothers and mothers who spoke less to the child while doing other things were significantly less likely to pass. Infants of mothers with the lowest educational level were more likely than their peers to pass at 9 months. Unlike language outcomes at 3 years, low maternal education does not appear to be a risk factor for poorer outcomes at 9 months. This study adds significantly to the infant language development literature by focussing on communication outcomes in early infancy and identifying protective and risk factors at such an early stage.

This paper presents an analysis of primary schoolchildren’s attitudes to the Irish language, Gaeilge, in the context of national policy in the Republic of Ireland. In particular, the study examines the factors (social, cultural, cognitive and organisational) that may be related to a pronounced excess in disengagement with Irish over and above general engagement with schooling. The data derives from the nine-year-old child cohort of the national longitudinal study of children, the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) survey. Unlike previous findings in relation to general engagement with school, excess disengagement with Irish is not found to be related to socio-economic or ethnic factors, factors related to teacher profile, training, self-efficacy or style or school ethos. As expected, children with less exposure to spoken Irish in school or at home are more likely to show excess disengagement with the language. Literacy activity, special education needs and school patronage are also found to be related to excess disengagement. Significant random effects indicate the importance of the individual teacher and school in the development of pupil engagement with Irish. The current study presents a timely perspective on attitudes to Irish among the younger population and possible implications for policy.

KEYWORDS: Irish language; motivation; minority languages; bilingualism; biliteracy

Chapter 12 considers the prevalence of anti-social behaviour in the early teenage years in Ireland, the nature of this behaviour and the extent to which anti-social behaviour is associated with socio-economic characteristics of the family, family structure and other factors such as parenting style, the adolescent’s self-esteem and peer influences.

Background
Taking oral antibiotics during childhood has been linked with an increased risk of childhood obesity. This study assessed any potential association in number of courses of antibiotics taken between 2–3 and 4–5 years of age and body mass trajectory up to age 5.

Methods
The study was a secondary analysis of 8186 children and their parents from the infant cohort of the Irish National Longitudinal Study of Children. Antibiotic use was measured by parental recall between ages 2–3 and 4–5. Longitudinal models described the relationship between antibiotic exposure and body mass index (BMI) standard deviation scores and binary outcomes, and examined interactions between covariates, which included socioeconomic status, diet assessed by food frequency questionnaires and maternal BMI.

Results
Any antibiotic usage between 2 and 3 years did not predict risk of overweight or obesity at age 5. Four or more courses of antibiotics between 2 and 3 years were independently associated with obesity at age 5 (odds ratio 1.6, 95% confidence interval 1.11–2.31). Effect size was modest (coefficient + 0.09 body mass SD units, standard error 0.04, P = 0.037). Maternal BMI modified the relationship: ≥ 4 courses of antibiotics between 2 and 3 years were associated with a + 0.12 body mass SD units increase in weight at age 5 among children of normal-weight mothers (P = 0.035), but not in children of overweight mothers.

Conclusions
Number of antibiotic courses, rather than antibiotic use, may be an important factor in any link between early antibiotic exposure and subsequent childhood obesity. Research is needed to confirm differential effects on babies of normal versus overweight/obese mothers independent of socioeconomic factors.